Learning objectives

Educational goals of the course: To provide a general and updated perspective of General, Cellular, Developmental and Aging Biology, with a particular emphasis on biomedical problems. To train students to evaluate critically experimental data, through the critical discussion of historical and current relevant experiments. To introduce students to instruments and techniques applied to the investigation of the cellular environment To suggest the current and other possible applications of basic biological knowledge to medical practice and therapeutics

Prerequisites and basic notions

The preparation carried out in order to pass the national test for the access to the CdLMC is a sufficient prerequisite. There are no particular prerequisites, beyond the basic knowledge required for access to the course, verified at the same time as the admission test. Students admitted to the course with a vote of less than 5 points in the discipline of Biology, will be assigned additional educational obligations (OFA) to be fulfilled in the first year of the Course.

Program

The molecules that characterize living beings. The events that probably characterized the beginning of life on earth. The universal characteristics of living things. Cellular theory. Biological macromolecules: characteristics and their interactions. The evolutionary theory proposed by Darwin. The modern synthetic theory of evolution: “Nothing in biology makes sense, but in the light of evolution” The tree of life has three main branches: bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes. Model organisms in biology. Prokaryotes: general characteristics. The Archaea and their habitats. The Eubacteria: habitat, interactions with other organisms and with the environment. Bacterial genome and plasmids, notes on antibiotic resistance. Binary fission. From prokaryotes to eukaryotes: endosymbiotic theory. Cellular organization. Cellular organelles and role of the plasma membrane. Correlations structure and function in the cell. Phagocytosis. The extracellular matrix. Evolution of the mammalian genome: how many and which genes we share with other eukaryotes, how many and which genes are the exclusive prerogative of the Primate order. Gene ontologies (GO). Intercellular communication. Signaling molecules (examples of some cellular signaling pathways, receptors associated with G proteins, receptors associated with protein kinases, hormones and other long-distance signals). Other cellular communication pathways: exosomes and microvesicles. Experimental cell models (primary cell cultures and cell lines), 3D cultures and organoids, applications in biomedicine. CELL GROWTH AND DIVISION: cell cycle and its control. Mitosis. Nucleus: chromatin, chromosomes. Programmed cell death: apoptosis. Cellular differentiation. Stamina cells. Tissue regeneration. Ploidy and reproductive strategies: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. Meiosis and human gametogenesis. The historical observations and experiments that led to the DISCOVERY OF GENETIC MATERIAL: Avery, Hershey and Chase, the structure of the double helix (R. Franklin, M. Wilkins, J Watson and F Crick), the complementarity of bases (E Chargaff), semiconservative replication (Meselson and Stahl). DNA polymerase and DNA replication "in vivo" (in prokaryotes and eukaryotes) and "in vitro" (PCR technique, and its applications). Telomerase and telomere replication. INFORMATION FLOW: from DNA to proteins. RNAs, and their role in the stages of information flow. Transcription in prokaryotes: the gene, the promoter, RNA polymerase, polycistronic mRNAs. Transcription in eukaryotes: the gene, the promoter, other regulatory sequences, RNA polymerase II, transcript maturation, the spliceosome, alternative splicing. Translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Universal genetic code: characteristics. Amino acids and codons, wobble theory. Protein synthesis in the eukaryotic cell, post-translational modifications, sorting and fate of proteins. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: lactose and tryptophan operons. Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. Structure and chemical-physical modifications of chromatin. Example of spatio-temporal control of gene expression: human globin genes. Gene dosage compensation: the example of X chromosome inactivation in female mammals. Role of non-coding RNAs in the regulation of gene expression. INHERITANCE. Chromosome theory, Morgan experiments for the demonstration of gene association and for the chromosomal localization of characters. The main extensions to Mendelian genetics. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY. The Drosophila model, the "architect" genes. Informational molecules in differentiation. The experiments of Gurdon, Wilmut, Yamanaka. Mammalian models, morphogenesis. Gene expression and sex determination in different organisms and in humans: the roles of the SRY and DSS genes. EVOLUTION AND MUTATION. Preadaptation (replicate plating test by J. and E. Lederberg). Mutations and selection, the concept of adaptive fitness. Mutations in coding regions, in regulatory regions, in non-coding regions, their consequences. Spontaneous mutations (outline of control and error correction mechanisms) and induced mutations: chemical mutagens: types and modes of action. Identification of mutagenic substances: Ames test. Physical mutagens: UV radiation, ionizing radiation. SOMATIC MUTATIONS and CANCER: Tumorigenesis is a multiphase process. Properties of the cancer cell. What are the causes of cancer. Classes of genes mutated in tumors and types of mutations (gain of function, loss of function). Epigenetic modifications in cancer cells. Role of microRNAs. Familiarity of tumors (outline). BIOLOGY OF AGING: environmental and genetic causes, role of free radicals, protective effects of anti-oxidants and caloric restrictions in animal models. Cellular senescence, Hayflick limit, telomere shortening, mitochondrial DNA mutations. Critical analysis of selected articles on cell biology: interpretation of experimental data and their contribution to biomedicine.

Bibliography

Didactic methods

Attendance to lessons is mandatory. The didactic methods consist of frontal lessons dedicated to the student's acquisition of knowledge and skills in the biological field. The analysis of experimental questions and/or scientific publications is also envisaged, aimed at developing the student's ability to critically re-elaborate experimental data. The teachers' explanations will be supported by PowerPoint presentations. Additional teaching material (multiple-choice quizzes for self-assessment, articles or reviews of particular interest, links to multimedia resources) may be made available on the Moodle platform during the course and information will be given to students in the classroom. In the presence of any specific needs of students with disabilities, specific learning disorders or special educational needs, within the limits of the applicable regulation, adequate teaching methods may be adopted. During the whole Academic Year, students may request personal reception from the teachers, by e-mail, as indicated on the teachers' web pages.

Learning assessment procedures

The learning assessment includes: a written test covering all the topics on the program, structured into 28 quizzes (single answer, true/false, multiple choice, completion tests, with identification of causal or temporal relationships, with interpretation of scientific texts, data tables, graphs) + 2 open questions that verify the student’s ability to synthesise, analyse and use adequate terminology. The objectives of the written test are: a) to verify the acquisition of theoretical knowledge; b) assessment of reasoning ability and individual re-elaboration of the knowledge acquired; c) ability to apply what has been learned to the resolution of experimental questions or the interpretation of photographic images. Duration of the written test 1 hour.

Evaluation criteria

The score of the written test (awarded in thirtieth) is decisive for the final vote in absence of the oral test. Only in case of a grade greater than or equal to 25/30 in the written test, students can optionally undergo an oral discussion, in which they must demonstrate that:
-they have understood the correlations between biological structures and functions
–they are able to explain clearly and with adequate terminology the program topics
–they are able to apply the acquired knowledge to interpret, compare and analyze biological processes.
The optional oral test, if passed positively, may contribute up to 6 points and Lode to the determination of the final grade; if it is insufficient, it will cancel the acquired score.
Students can withdraw from the examination at any time (written and oral): partial credits will be cancelled in this case.

Criteria for the composition of the final grade

The final grade will be expressed in thirty as the result of the written test and any oral test.

Exam language

Italiano